Muslims across the world commemorate the birth of Prophet Mohammad, an occasion that recalls the life of the noble Prophet and the profound transformation his message brought to the course of human history. Yet this transformation cannot be fully understood without looking back at the period preceding his birth and examining the political, economic and social conditions that prevailed in the Arabian Peninsula and the surrounding region. This was a period of major regional developments, the growing importance of Makkah as a centre of significance on several levels, and a tribal system that shaped Arab societies before Islam. In this dialogue, Dr. Ali bin Said Al-Riyami, Associate Professor of Islamic History at the College of Arts and Social Sciences, discusses the key features of that era and how they contributed to shaping the environment in which the Islamic message emerged. He draws on historical readings based on scholarly sources and references rather than conventional narratives of events.
How can we describe the political landscape in the region before the birth of Prophet Mohammad? What were the main features of the conflict between the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires, and how did this affect the Arabian Peninsula?
The Arabian Peninsula before Islam was characterised by political fragmentation. There was no central state or unified government exercising authority over the entire peninsula. Instead, the tribe was the fundamental political and social unit. This system gave rise to tribal solidarity as the basis of loyalty and belonging, resulting in frequent conflicts and wars between tribes. These conflicts became known as the Ayyam al-Arab (Days of the Arabs), including the Day of al-Basus between Bakr and Taghlib, the Day of Dhu Qar between Abs and Dhubyan, and the Day of Khazzaz between Yemeni and Adnani tribes. The causes of some of these wars may appear trivial at times, while others were driven by economic interests, revenge or tribal pride. There was also the Day of Dhu Qar, a conflict between the Arabs and the Persians and one of the rare occasions on which Arab tribes fought a common external enemy.
The division among the Arabs and the conflicts and wars it generated made the Arabian Peninsula vulnerable to the ambitions of major regional powers, given its strategic position at the heart of the ancient world. Both the Byzantine Empire and the Persian Sasanian Empire therefore sought to expand their influence in the region.
In this context, the Abyssinians attempted to seize Makkah in 570 CE in what became known as the Year of the Elephant. The Byzantines also relied on the Ghassanid Kingdom in the Levant as an ally to protect their southern borders, monitor the movements of Arab tribes and collect payments from northern Arabs. The Persians, meanwhile, relied on the Lakhmid Kingdom of al-Hirah to secure their western borders and counter Byzantine influence. In the context of the period, the Arab region can therefore be described as a theatre of international rivalry.
What distinguished Makkah's geographical location at the time, and how did it contribute to making the city a centre where tribes and economic and social interests converged?
Before Islam, Makkah's geographical location had a number of characteristics that enabled it to play a pivotal role in the economic, social and religious life of the Arabian Peninsula. It became a meeting point for tribes and a centre of commercial activity because it was located in the Hijaz at the intersection of major trade routes linking the southern and northern parts of the Arabian Peninsula. Caravans arriving from Yemen travelled through Makkah towards the Levant, while the city was also connected to the Red Sea, further enhancing its commercial importance.
Another factor that strengthened Makkah's position was the presence of the Kaaba, which was regarded as a religious centre for the Arabs before Islam. Tribes travelled there for pilgrimage and visitation, providing Makkah with a considerable degree of security and stability. Pilgrimage was not merely a religious occasion; it was also an economic, social and cultural season.
Famous seasonal markets were established around Makkah, including the markets of Ukadh, Majanna and Dhu al-Majaz. These markets went beyond buying and selling to become meeting places where tribes communicated, poetry was recited, speeches were delivered, alliances were formed, disputes were settled, and news and ideas were exchanged.
What was the nature of economic activity in the Arabian Peninsula before Islam?
Economic activity in the Arabian Peninsula before Islam was diverse and varied according to the natural environment and available resources. Pastoralism and the raising of camels and sheep were the principal activities among the inhabitants of the desert. In settled areas, agriculture flourished, particularly in Yemen, Oman and Bahrain, as well as in some oases of the Hijaz and Najd, benefiting from rainfall, springs, wells and dams. Major crops included cereals, dates and grapes, in addition to frankincense, myrrh and aromatic plants.
Some areas of the peninsula were also known for crafts and industries, including the production of textiles, leather goods, weapons and pottery, as well as the extraction of minerals and precious stones and the production of perfumes and incense. Trade occupied a central position, benefiting from the Arabian Peninsula's location between the civilisations of India, East Africa, Iraq, the Levant, Egypt and the Mediterranean. Trade caravans travelled along land and maritime routes, transporting incense, spices, textiles, metals and other goods. Seasonal markets, such as the markets of Dumat al-Jandal, Hajar, Daba, Suhar and al-Shihr in Oman, which connected the Arabian Peninsula with the civilisations of India and Persia, contributed to stimulating commercial exchange and cultural interaction.
What role did the systems of ilaf and commercial security play in strengthening Makkah's influence?
The system of ilaf and commercial security played an important role in strengthening the influence of Quraysh and the position of Makkah before Islam. Ilaf represented a network of agreements and treaties that Quraysh concluded with the rulers of neighbouring regions and tribal leaders along the caravan routes. These agreements enabled Qurayshi merchants to access markets in the Levant, Yemen, Abyssinia, Iraq and Persia. They also secured the protection of caravans and facilitated their passage in return for sharing profits, transporting and selling local products in markets, or providing gifts and payments to tribal leaders.
This system helped reduce the risks of raids and highway robbery and enabled Quraysh caravans to travel at different times, even outside the sacred months. The winter and summer journeys consequently became more organised, and the scope of Makkah's trade expanded. Makkah became an intermediary commercial centre between southern and northern Arabia and the surrounding regional powers. As a result, Quraysh accumulated wealth, expanded its political and social relations, and increased its ability to influence other tribes. Its economic influence gradually developed into social and political influence, reinforcing its authority in Makkah and its position in the Arabian Peninsula.
What were the main features of the social structure of pre-Islamic Arab society? How did systems of alliances and pacts help organise relations between tribes?
The social structure of pre-Islamic Arab society was based on the tribe as the fundamental unit of belonging, protection and the organisation of rights and obligations. A tribe consisted of its members connected through blood and lineage, as well as mawali, freedmen and enslaved people. An individual's security and status were derived from their tribe. An outcast, however, could seek protection from another tribe, thereby gaining security and residence in return for fulfilling its obligations. Internal relations were characterised by solidarity and strengthened by values such as honour, generosity, loyalty, protection of neighbours, helping those in distress and courage, alongside the continued practice of revenge and the defence of honour.
Alliances, meanwhile, helped overcome tribal isolation and organise relations around shared interests. They were established for economic, political and military purposes while allowing tribes to retain their independence. Historical sources indicate that Quraysh entered into 29 alliances. Among the most prominent was the Alliance of the Confederates (Hilf al-Ahabish), an old military alliance aimed at protecting Quraysh and strengthening its defensive capabilities.
The alliance with Taif was linked to the city's agricultural importance and its location on Quraysh's trade route to Yemen, helping strengthen economic ties between Makkah and Taif. The Alliance of the Perfumed (Hilf al-Mutayyabin) emerged from competition over positions of authority in Makkah, when Banu Abd Manaf and their allies pledged mutual support and to remain united, representing one of the early forms of political organisation. The Alliance of Virtue (Hilf al-Fudul), meanwhile, was an ethical alliance established to support the oppressed and restore rights regardless of the victim's status or lineage. In this way, alliances helped provide security, protect trade and settle disputes.
How can established Arab values, such as generosity, loyalty, tribal solidarity and revenge, be understood in their historical context without resorting to stereotypes?
Arab values before Islam can be understood as historical responses to the conditions of tribal society and the nature of the desert environment, rather than as fixed characteristics or absolute moral judgements. Generosity, for example, was associated with the harshness of the desert and the scarcity of resources. Feeding travellers and the poor and protecting guests were means of fostering solidarity and ensuring survival, while also bringing status and honour to those who practised them. Likewise, keeping one's word and protecting one's neighbour served a legal and social function in a society that lacked a central authority. Breaking an alliance or committing treachery was therefore regarded as a source of public shame.
Tribal solidarity can be understood as a bond that provided individuals with protection and a sense of belonging and obliged the tribe to defend its members. However, it could also turn into blind partisanship, whereby an individual supported a relative regardless of whether they were in the right, perpetuating conflict between tribes. Similarly, revenge emerged as a means of deterring aggression and restoring balance and honour in the absence of a general judicial authority. Yet it also led to the inheritance of disputes and the expansion of cycles of violence. Islam therefore transferred the right to punishment from individuals to an organised authority and regulated it according to the principles of justice, qisas (retaliatory justice) and diyah (blood money).
In summary, these values contained both positive and negative elements. Understanding them requires relating them to the structure of society, its resources and its institutions, while avoiding generalising them to all Arabs or reducing the pre-Islamic period to a single image.
Did the Year of the Elephant affect Makkah's position or the balance of power in the Arabian Peninsula?
Yes, the Year of the Elephant had a clear impact on Makkah's position, although its direct impact on the political and military balance of power is less clear. Abraha's objective in his campaign was to destroy the Kaaba and divert pilgrimage and trade towards his church in Sana'a, which would have undermined Makkah's religious and economic role. Abraha failed to achieve his objective of redirecting pilgrimage and trade towards the south, and Makkah remained a relatively independent religious and commercial centre beyond Abyssinian influence.
The course of the campaign also revealed differences in the positions of the tribes. Some Yemeni and Khath'am tribes resisted Abraha, while Taif submitted to him and assisted him along the route. This demonstrated that the balance of tribal power remained fragmented and lacked unity. Nevertheless, Makkah's survival from the campaign gave Quraysh considerable moral and political standing, which later contributed to expanding its influence among the Arabs and strengthening the security of its trade and its central position in the Arabian Peninsula.
To what extent can the political, economic and social conditions in the region before the birth of Prophet Mohammad be said to have contributed to preparing the environment for the emergence of the Islamic message?
The political, economic and social conditions in the Arabian Peninsula before the Prophethood can be said to have contributed to creating an environment in which a comprehensive message of reform could emerge. The region was characterised by religious plurality dominated by polytheism, political fragmentation that made the tribe the primary framework of belonging and protection, frequent wars and vendettas, social inequality, and the violation of the rights of vulnerable groups.
The emergence of Islam brought about a profound transformation in the structure of Arab society. It moved people from the worship of multiple deities to the worship of one God, and from tribal divisions and loyalties to the concept of a single ummah united by faith and transcending ties of lineage. It replaced social inequality and class distinctions with the principle of human dignity and equality, linking distinction to piety and good deeds rather than lineage or wealth. It also shifted the handling of revenge and disputes from individual retaliation to the rule of law, judicial authority and recourse to divine revelation. At the same time, it safeguarded rights, supported the oppressed, protected vulnerable groups, and established principles of justice, responsibility and solidarity.
The religious, social and political unity advocated by Prophet Mohammad transformed the Arabs from scattered tribes divided by local loyalties into an organised force capable of protecting the Arabian Peninsula and confronting the influence of the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires, which competed for influence on its borders through the Ghassanids and Lakhmids and through intervention in Yemen.
After the Arabian Peninsula was united under Islam, Muslims moved beyond its borders, carrying the message to the Levant, Iraq, Egypt, Persia and elsewhere. This expansion was not merely political; it was also connected to the Muslims' understanding of the universality of the Prophetic message and its address to all people, rather than to a particular tribe or region. Islam thus reshaped the place of the Arabs in history: they moved from being influenced by the conflicts of major powers to contributing to the development of a global civilisation that brought together diverse peoples and ethnic groups within a shared religious and cultural framework.
Thus, the impact of Islam was not limited to addressing the crises of Arab society. It rebuilt that society on religious, ethical, legal and political foundations, transforming scattered communities into a united ummah with a universal message and an overarching system, capable of safeguarding its independence and engaging meaningfully with the wider world.